An external voltage forces lithium ions back from the cathode to the anode, where they are stored between graphite layers.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the dominant energy storage technology for electric vehicles (EVs) due to their high energy density, long cycle life, and low self-discharge rates. Their behavior in an EV environment is dictated by complex electrochemical reactions, thermal sensitivity, and specific usage patterns that impact both short-term performance and long-term health. 1. Fundamental Working Principle

The operation of an LIB is based on , a process where lithium ions move back and forth between the cathode and anode through an electrolyte.